Application of IT in Environment Study and Human Health

Information Technology (IT) has been making positive and crucial impacts in the day-to-day lives of the people for the last 35 years or so in India, and for a little longer time elsewhere in Western Europe and North America. The banking, finance, insurance, stock and commodities trading, education, health-care and mass communication sectors, to name a few, have taken rapid strides due to the IT advancement.

Thanks to the IT, today we are able to communicate liberally at a lost cost with speed, as well as send, exchange and download several gigabytes of information and data in a matter of few seconds or minutes depending on the speed of the computer we use. To support all these activities, a separate industrial sector known as Information Technology-enabled services (ITeS) has emerged worldwide as well as in India.

The ‘services sector’, of which ITeS is a significant part, contributes the maximum to the Indian Gross Value Added (GVA). The GVA is one of the several important measurements to the gross domestic product (GDP), the driving force of the Economy of a country.

Like in any other sector, in the environment science, and the human health and lives too, the IT has been steadily making positive impact and the application of IT in all these fields has been growing constantly. Several case studies and areas of use can be cited for the regular application of IT in Environment Study and Human Health.

A few examples and instances where IT can be effectively and profitably employed are mentioned here. These examples are chosen since the IT activities involved in them play important role in maximizing the jobs to the youth and the incomes in the agricultural, fishing and ITeS areas of human livelihood, as also make significant impact on weather and cyclone study that would save the life and property.

Remote-Sensing:

Remote sensing is a state-of-the-art branch of scientific pursuit in the information technology by which information on specific but a wide-ranging areas of applied scientific domains are generated from the empirical data collected through the platform located at far distance up in the space. The remote sensors mounted on the orbiting satellites that are launched by the space scientists in space collect the data in digital form by detecting and recording the solar- or the light-energy that is reflected from Earth.

The term ‘remote-sensing’ derives its name from the fact that the acquisition of information on a variety resources and aspects of the Earth is achieved without actually being physically in contact with them. In ‘active remote sensing’ signals of known characteristics are propagated from the sensor attached to the satellite platform to the Earth’s surface or the ocean, and the return signal is detected after a time lag calculated on the basis of- (i) the distance from the platform to the ocean or the surface and (ii) by the speed of light. On the other hand, in ‘passive remote sensing’ the light that is naturally emitted or reflected by the Earth’s surface or the water body are detected and interpreted.

In remote-sensing, the ‘sensing’ or detecting of the Earth’s surface from the space is carried out by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or diffracted by the observed objects for a variety of purposes.

Remote- sensing has a wide range of applications in an array of functions such as weather and cyclone monitoring, sea-coast study, monitor the shoreline changes due to erosion and deposition, river course study to track the sediment transport and deposition, and the study of geology, forestry, urban and rural development, tsunami, landslide, earthquakes, landuse and land-cover, and ocean study. The data generated by remote- sensing can be used for a variety of purposes on all Earth-related subjects and aspects.

Some of the other important applications of remote sensing may be summarized as follows:

In Ocean study applications, monitoring the ocean circulation and current systems, measurement of ocean temperature and wave heights, and tracking of the sea ice- sheets, as for example the large ice-sheets that break away from Antarctica. The data can be used to understand the oceans and how to best manage the ocean resources.

In hazard assessment and management applications, remote-sensing helps to track the cyclones, hurricanes, earthquakes, large-scale sediment-erosion and-deposition, and flooding. These studies can be effectively launched for planning urban development also, in a way that the newly developed urban centres do not face seismicity and flash- flooding. These data can be used to assess the impacts of natural disasters and create disaster preparedness strategies to be used in the risk identification for a hazard, as well as caution to be taken before the potential hazards.

In the natural resources management, locating certain mineral deposits, monitoring the landuse, map watersheds, wetlands, groundwater resources, chart wildlife habitats and surveillance of illegal mining of natural resources likes sand and minerals. The data produced can be used to minimize the damage that urban growth has on the environment and help decide how to best protect natural resources.

It should nevertheless be clearly understood that remote-sensing is a technical aid or tool in these studies, but not ultimate answer to all the applications.

Supportive ground-level data need to be sought for thorough verification as proof and empirical value for the remote-sensing data generated by interpretation of the satellite- generated imagery.

1. Ocean Color Monitoring by Remote-Sensing and Information Technology:

Oceanic remote sensing uses electromagnetic signals from the near-ultraviolet wavelengths from about 300-400 nano-metre zone in the electromagnetic spectrum to various radar band wavelengths of 1 cm to 1 m range. The applications of ocean color remote sensing are extensive, varied and basis to the understanding and monitoring the global ecosystems.

The scientific applications of ocean colour monitoring data are:

(i) Mapping of chlorophyll concentrations in the oceans and seas;

(ii) Determination of phytoplankton and their physiology;

(iii) Studies of ocean carbon fixation and cycling;

(iv) Monitoring of ecosystem variations caused due to climate change;

(v) Fisheries management by real-time monitoring of phytoplankton and zooplankton rich zones in oceans and seas and communication to fishery professionals;

(vi) Mapping of krill, coral reefs and sea grass;

(vii) Locating oil-spills in oceans;

(viii) Bathymetry in which the sea-floor depth is determined;

(ix) Military operations by submarines;

(x) Monitoring of water quality for recreation; and

(xi) Detection of harmful algal blooms and pollution events.

The ocean colour monitoring for fisheries management has been a livelihood support for the fishermen who venture into the seas to get a good catch of fish. This is a combination of the real-time ocean remote-sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS), a computer-linked system (designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data) and information technology support to large groups of fisher-folk who depend only on fishing for their living.

2. Precision Farming or Precision Agriculture:

One of the remarkable developments in the field of agriculture is an innovative concept and practice known as ‘Precision Farming’, also known as ‘Precision Agriculture’. Precision Farming is essentially an agricultural management practice with a potential to increase the profits of the agriculturists by employing irrigation scheduling, water conservation, and administering of variable but precise amounts of fertilizers and other farm nutrients and pesticides.

Under this agriculture, vast volumes of data on farms can be gathered, stored, mined, viewed and analyzed, and later archived as agricultural data inputs in the form of reusable knowledge in Information Technology, to make the agriculture management better.

This technology is a means to create wealth and a strong knowledge base in Information Technology pertaining to better farm management. This knowledge base can facilitate sound decisions on agricultural, taxation and fiscal policies too. Precision Farming can generate vast amounts of vital information, knowledge and meta-data on agriculture that can be stored in computers and retrieved at the time of future need.

In this sophisticated agriculture practice, the IT data obtained from the satellites, Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) software are combined, and the desired results achieved with the support of local administrative authorities and co-operative farm movement.

Precision Farming has taken the agriculture to the space and information technologies. India being one of the frontline countries in both these modern technologies, ideally it is expected that India adopts Precision Farming over wide arable lands.

Precision Farming uses the space satellite-linked Global Positioning System (GPS) mounted on a tractor. In recent times, drones are used instead of tractor to host GPS. The GPS gives the precise location of a farm or an even a small unit of agricultural land within networked agricultural fields connected by a computer system that is equipped with Geographic Information System (GIS) software.

All information relating to the farm such as the availability and requirement of water, soil nutrients and pesticide is computed through algorithms and stored in the GIS. As the tractor or drone moves through the fields, the GPS mounted on it sends signals on the contents of soil moisture and soil nutrients in various farms to the GIS, along with locations of the farms.

In sync with the supporting software, the GIS decides the exact amount of fertilizer or pesticide required by the various farms in the field, and sends back signals to a computer-linked equipment called ‘variable rate applicator mounted on the tractor. The applicator is sensitized by the computer network to sprinkle desired quantity of fertilizers, water and pesticides in the farms. Precision Farming is effective saving money by optimum application of fertilizers and pesticides and also helps in conserving the water in agriculture, thereby maintaining the water table by optimizing the draw of groundwater for irrigation.

There are five components of technology in the Precision Farming.

These are:

(i) Global Positioning System (GPS);

(ii) Sensor Technology and Remote-sensing;

(iii) Geographic Information Systems (GIS);

(iv) Variable Rate Technology (VRT); and

(v) Yield Monitoring and Yield Mapping.

(i) Global Positioning System (GPS):

The GPS is a man-made constellation of satellites that are put into high-altitude orbits of about 20,000 km away from the Earth, under space programmes. A set of twenty-four satellites with twelve-hour orbital period in six orbital planes at 55° inclination to the equator, which are developed by the United States of America’s Department of Defense, incessantly transmit radio signals that are picked up and deciphered by specially designed gadgets known as the GPS Receivers.

These signals are put into a variety of uses such as navigation, ground surveys, defense, communication, earth-science (glaciology, structure of the earth’s crust, seismic studies and river course monitoring) and several other applications where spatial and temporal variations are to be determined. The GPS Receivers require at least four satellites to determine their geographic positions on the Earth.

These positions are picked up by the GPS Receivers as the point of intersection of a specific latitude and longitude. The accuracy of the calculated location is often or always about 30 m away from the actual location, as a result of a deliberate offset in the signal, as also due to the atmospheric variations.

The raw GPS signals are not accurate to determine the precise locations on the Earth. The GPS that utilizes a reference signal to gain accurate positional data is known as the Differential GPS or DGPS. The DGPS Receivers are the type of receivers, which are employed in the agricultural tractors in Precision Farming.

The DGPS Receivers operate with an accuracy level of about one metre error in tracking the field positions. These receivers are mounted on the top of the tractor or drone. The need for an instrument such as DGPS is to revisit a location repeatedly so as to ascertain that the adequate need of the farm such as fertilizer or water or pesticide is taken care and in right amount.

(ii) Remote-Sensing & Sensor Technology:

Sensors are necessary in Precision Farming to detect the stress on the crops due to soil properties, soil moisture, nutrient-contents and pest attack. The sensors can be mounted on tractor or drone and carried to the field for instantaneous checking of the crop health, pest infestations, fertility deficiencies, soil properties and nutrient content.

They use light reflectance on the leaves to find out the chlorophyll- and nitrogen- contents in the leaves as also an index known as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The sensors give the above parameters in ‘real time’ as the tractor or drone moves over the farms. The sensors provide instant maps that display farm parameters.

Satellite-mounted sensors provide all these data as multi-spectral imagery. Temporal resolution of about two weeks for repetitive data collection on agricultural farms would be ideal in Precision Farming. Remote-sensing hinges on the interpretation of the temporal variations in reflectance observed in the multi-spectral imagery.

Repetitive observation of the multi-spectral imagery may bring out anomalies in some farms. Such anomalies may denote endemic pest or weed attack, which would require immediate management. Crop stress on account of the inadequacy or lack of moisture and nutrient deficiency is also imaged by the anomalies.

The standing crops in the field and farms offer spectral response as a result of the NDVI, and this response is highly variable depending on the type and the health of the crops. Since subtle spectral variations result in the imagery as a result of variations in reflectance, those variations are most likely to be the functions of variability in soil moisture content, pests, weeds, humus and chemical nutrient-contents in the soil.

Study of spectral variations, vegetation index and other parameters relating to the farms having standing crops is possible by computer-aided image processing of satellite-based data in digital form. Numerous digital image processing software are already developed for application to processing of the space-based digital data obtained from the sensors of the space platforms.

Computer professionals engaged in digital image processing need to work out algorithms to facilitate the satellite data to display sensitive spectral patterns on account of factors such as soil stress, crop stress, moisture or nutrient deficiency, endemic crop diseases, pest and weed infestations and so on. These advanced studies on agriculture based on space data and computer software help in arriving at proper farm management decisions such as application of fertilizer, pesticide and water.

Effective application of remote-sensing in Precision Farming depends on the availability of the imagery having the following characteristics:

(i) High spectral resolution from visual range of band through infra-red band to thermal band.

(ii) High spatial resolution of about 5 m and 1 m.

(iii) High temporal resolution with a data frequency of about two weeks.

One of the hindrances may be the pattern of farm holding as small individual units by the farmers. The farmers need to be educated on the advantages of the technology and encouraged to participate in a collective manner in the Precision Farming. The local administration need to bring the farmers together to participate in the technology-intensive agriculture for their own benefits of low-cost and high-profit in the profession.

(iii) Geographic Information Systems (GIS):

GIS is an efficient and versatile tool for geographic analysis and agricultural decision support using computer system. GIS comprises software-linked exercises in which huge volumes and a variety of data describing the geographic locations on the Earth’s surface can be stored, retrieved, integrated, analysed and altered in the event of subsequent changes, in shortest possible time.

Therefore, GIS has the ability to pick up specific data in terms of geographic areas or locations and themes. It can merge one theme of data for a particular area with another theme and analyse their spatial characteristics. GIS is also capable of sifting, searching and sorting specific features in different areas, as well as update and model the data of various sorts. The output data of GIS are in the form of maps, graphs, lists and statistics, all of which together chum out useful information to facilitate instant decision making.

The GIS comprises diverse and intricate disciplines of science such as algorithm creation, cartography, environmental science, geography, geodesy, landscape architecture, remote-sensing, photogrammetry, landuse, land cover and public policies. The GIS software is designed to handle and function with the aid of spatial (or geographical) reference data such as latitudes and longitudes, which are easily available for any geographic location. The GIS can be visualized as a software package comprising various tools used for data entry, data processing, data analysis and obtain output information.

It can be seen that a number of elements are essential for an effective GIS management and obtain the requisite information as output data.

These elements include:

(a) Data input and output devices, such as digitizers, scanners, printers and plotters;

(b) High-resolution monitors to facilitate the view of multi-spectral graphics;

(c) Adequate memory in computer for storage of voluminous data in multiple themes; and

(d) High speed processor in computer for quick storage, retrieval, processing, analysis and yield outputs.

In Precision Farming, GIS helps storing the data on the farms, retrieving them as and when they are required, processing the data on soil type, nutrient and moisture levels, pesticide quantity and a host of other parameters based on the empirical data that are initially obtained from and assigned to the Precision Fanning fields. GIS stores those data in different layers and assign the information to that particular farm location in terms of latitudes and longitudes obtained from GPS.

Some of the GIS software have simulation model on ideal parameters for the farms or crops, and this simulation model integrates the actual parameters of the farm under study with those of the simulation models and processes them for comparative study and recommend corrective steps in management of the farm. The simulation model parameters also pertain to the usual farm-related information such as soil type, soil health, and crop stress, pesticide- and nutrient-requirement and so on.

In Precision Farming, the GIS can be made to function based on the whole array of computer systems ranging from laptops and portable personal computers to multi-user supercomputers. The computers can be programmed in a wide variety of software languages.

The computer systems are available for the Precision Farming technology that use dedicated workstations with monitors and digitising tables built in. There are also instances where this technology is applied using lower-end stand-alone high-speed personal computers. Hence, the GIS in the Precision Farming can be tailored to suit the specific needs depending upon the size of the farms, size of the field area, and the investment capacity.

By integrating the GIS with the GPS, several maps can be generated showing the variability of nutrient levels, soil type, soil stress if present, topography of the farms and the whole field, pest incidence if present, moisture- and fertilizer-saturation, and probable yield from the farms and a host of other information.

The GIS software is designed in a way to provide the effects of data smoothing and contouring the values of above-mentioned parameters. For Indian agricultural practice under complex patterns of climates, dry land and semi-arid tropical farming, agriculture under water-stressed condition as well as excessive water condition, the GIS software package that is required in Precision Farming is expected to be complex.

The IT professionals engaged in GIS software for Precision Farming need to take into account all these complexities while executing the software development. It is expected that a sizable number of IT professionals need to work directly in tandem with the farmers as their consultants and advisors, if the Precision Farming were to be launched aggressively.

Hence, more IT professionals should be encouraged to pay attention to Precision Farming. That would not only create jobs to our youth who possess the zeal and knowledge to work as IT professionals, but also that would facilitate reverse migration of technically qualified youth from urban centres to rural areas.

iv. Variable Rate Technology (VRT):

An array of agricultural machines and equipment known as ‘applicators’, pioneered by the mechanical and electronic engineers in association with IT professionals are put to use in Precision Farming. The VRT comprises computer controllers and the associated hardware to suit variable output of fertilizer, pesticides and moisture. The outputs have to be variable since the requirement of the fertilizer, moisture and pesticide by different farms are often variable too.

The applicator is linked to the GPS so that the operator of the applicator can precisely locate the farm that needs care in the form of fertilizer- or pesticide-supply. The GIS software decides the exact quantity of fertilizer or pesticide, which is to be administered to the needy farms. The controller of the machinery then manipulates it in such a way to administer the right amount of fertilizer, water and pesticide required by the farms.

The GPS and VRT machines are perfectly synchronised in such a way that in real-time, the VRT applicators mounted on tractor administer variable but precise amounts of nutrients, water and pesticides required by the farms as the tractor moves. If Precision Farming is adopted over large areas of arable land, it would help the entrepreneurs and engineers to manufacture the innovative GIS- and GPS-linked applicators and farm equipment.

v. Yield Monitoring and Yield Mapping:

Yield monitoring is the method by which the crop production in different farms is assessed to maximize the crop production. The yield monitor measures the harvest instantly. As the yield is measured, the data are stored in computer along with the latitude and longitude of the farm location as obtained from the GPS. The mapping software creates a map called the yield map based on the data generated by the yield monitor.

The yield map displays two parameters namely yield variability and yield production, which are represented in different colours on the map, with each colour representing a range in yield. The yield map may be prepared as calibrated iso-yield map showing equal yield areas within contours, or non-calibrated (non-contoured) maps without showing iso-yield areas.

Adoption of Precision Farming in a big way would benefit IT professionals to create algorithms, besides sensor technologists, software developers, remote-sensing scientists, and entrepreneurs in the mechanical and electrical engineering and GPS-linked agricultural machinery manufacturing segments, to keep innovating new tools and facilities in the five components. Large number of youth qualified in the above mentioned branches would find employment opportunities, if large areas are brought under Precision Farming.

3. Meteorology Studies:

Meteorology is the branch of science where we study and research on the atmosphere. In meteorology we apply the laws of physics, geology, atmospheric science and chemistry to understand the Earth’s atmosphere and its dynamics.

Therefore, meteorology is essentially an inter-disciplinary science. Meteorology dates back to the period of ancient civilizations and voyagers who observed and tracked the weathers for agricultural practices and for their safety of voyages undertaken by them in deep seas and oceans.

With the advancement of science and compelled by the need to understand the causes of the meteorology-related hazards such as hurricanes, tornados, cyclones, droughts, monsoon-failures, flash-floods and abnormal high tides in mid- seas and coasts, the meteorologists stepped up researches in atmospheric science to address and find solutions to the complexities and vagaries of the atmosphere, and their effects on the Earth and safety of the people.

In recent times, the meteorologists are engaged in weather forecasting, atmospheric researches, drought mitigation study and other applied meteorology such as atmospheric pollution control. Weather forecasting is always the top priority in meteorology. In recent times, the scientists show interest in meteorology by the challenge of forecasting cyclones, hurricanes and droughts, to ensure that the forecast saves the lives and property of thousands of people. New knowledge on the interactions between the oceans and the atmosphere make it possible to predict the climate patterns over large regions well in advance.

The weather forecasts that we get nowadays are the worldwide effort by thousands of meteorologists in several countries. The meteorologists in current times share the information generated by them in real-time basis with their fraternity in other countries for the benefit and safety of people. With the aid of Information technology, the weather information is synchronized all over the world and the resulting atmospheric measurements are used to produce sophisticated computer models that simulate the motions in the atmosphere.

These models become crucial weather guides. Meteorologists use these guides along with the satellite data, radars, weather balloons and numerous weather instrument stations to produce forecasts. These forecasts are used by broadcast meteorologists to propagate the local and national forecasts on television, radio and the internet.

Meteorology researchers work in association with remote-sensing scientists, chemists, physicists, mathematicians, oceanographers, hydrologists and in other branches of environmental science. Together they understand complex weather phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, snowstorms and the dangers that might accompany them so that forecasters may improve their forecasts and save lives and property.

Mathematicians and computer scientists help the meteorologists design computer models of atmospheric processes through algorithms. Meteorologists and oceanographers study also the ocean-atmosphere interactions like El Nino.

There are many specialized subfields in meteorology with the subfields defined by the spatial scale of phenomena studied. In terms of spatial scale, the meteorological studies are conducted on micro-, meso-, synoptic and global scales. The micro-scale meteorology deals with problems that are on the order of 1 km or smaller like individual clouds or heat transfers.

The meso-scale meteorology is the study in the size range of more than 1 km to several hundred kilometers. Lake effect snowstorms, intense thunderstorms and convective complexes are of meso-scale study. The synoptic scale meteorology includes large scale atmospheric concepts in the order of thousand kilometers or more. It includes the features that we see on daily weather maps like the high and low pressure systems.

Global scale meteorology deals with weather systems of global scale as for example the El Nino. Exercise such as mathematical algorithm, simulation modeling and real-time monitoring of atmospheric phenomena on 24 x 7 basis in computer networks are most important Information Technology inputs that are applicable in meteorological studies in current times.

The information collected on or from the Rain-gauge network, Rainfall Intensity Recorders, Aneroid Barometers (air-pressure recorders), Thermometers (temperature records), Anemometers (wind speed detectors), Solar Radiation, Evaporation, Humidity or Relative Humidity, and Radio-sonde (sensor- and computer-linked equipment that records temperature, dew-point, atmospheric pressure, geo-potential height, wind speed and direction) are to be continually interpreted, archived and mined from computer systems for periodic modeling and researches on atmospheric phenomena. Therefore, Information Technology finds wide application the meteorological studies.

4. Carbon Footprint, Carbon Capturing and Carbon Credit Technologies:

The information technology has significant inputs and role in these three related high-end technologies that gain vital role in the Climate Change studies in the 21^st Century. Appropriate mathematic and logic-based algorithms need to be built by the IT-professionals for these studies and therefore, IT has crucial roles in these niche areas of advanced researches.

Recently, Carbon capturing technology has been adopted by a fertilizer manufacturing company in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu by capturing carbon dioxide emitted from its coal-powered plant and using it to make baking soda. The ground-breaking method, developed indigenously and believed to be a world first, involves capturing carbon-dioxide and other pollutants from coal and feeding it into a mixing chamber with salt and ammonia, creating baking soda in the process.

The proprietary solvent used is slightly more efficient than those used conventionally, requiring less energy and smaller equipment. The company claims that as much as 66,000 tonnes of the carbon-dioxide could be captured at the plant each year and says the marginal gain in efficiency is just enough to make it feasible to run the plant without a subsidy.

It needs to be stressed that in all these Climate Change domain carbon emission in the atmosphere needs to be continually monitored through specific and customized mathematical algorithms worked out for the specific areas of interest wherein carbon credit needs to be assigned to the concerned industry or country.

Therefore, IT has a very major role in this domain. The IT professionals need to work in unison to mitigate the Climate Change effects using the IT-linked advanced methods to detect the emissions and bring down the emissions by suggesting appropriate methods of carbon credits.